Awaiting
Publication
Investigation into a special needs student coping with a physical handicap
and the issue of low-visual acuity to understand how it affects the student's
learning and social interaction; and suggesting possible strategies to overcome
these barriers to learning.
2011
– 2012
by
Brian Gallagher
MAODE(Open),
PGCODE(Open), PGCE, B.Sc.
Key Words
Special
Needs, Disability, low-visual activity, handicap, barriers
Introduction
In
this unique case study I identify the
issue of low-visual acuity and
how it affects a student's learning in an international institution,
compounded with physical mobility problems by analysis of the
learning/teaching environment. This is of extreme importance as “data
from international studies show that approximately 25% of school-age
children carry some form of visual deficiency” (Gianini et al,
2004). In the United States of America Kemper et al, (2003) suggest
that “correctable visual impairment is the most common treatable
chronic condition of childhood” and it is clear that the number of
school-age children being diagnosed with poor vision is on the
increase. Visual impairment is considered “a large and growing
socio-economic problem” (Binns et al, 2012) and eye imbalances in
strength occurs in 1.2%1
of children by seven years of age and occurs equally in males and
females. This points to a progressive coherence of knowledge in this
matter and a consensus in literature to the issue.
I
explain why it is reasoned that the student has low V-A and I suggest
some measures to improve her educational situation. While it is
impossible for the teacher to improve her mobility issues it was
possible to minimize the barriers to learning within the confines of
the current school environment. Any techniques or coping skills that
can benefit the learner here, may be transferable to further
educational situations to advise facilitators in primary, secondary
or tertiary educational institutions on how they might manage and
support students with similar requirements.
Rosner
and Gruber (1985) describe how it is possible to teach how to
“provide appropriate services for school-aged children who present,
because of reduced visual acuity, unstable binocularity and
perceptual skill disorders” which are clear barriers to learning.
The Context
The
learner chosen for this case study has a mixture of physical barriers
to her learning. The primary focus is on her low visual acuity and
low vision apparent in both eyes. One being better than the other. In
common terms this is known as “a squint” or “lazy eye”, but
more correctly termed “strabismus” (Good & Hoyt, 1996) which
is a feature in our eyes that we all have to some extent. In this
specific student's situation one eye can see only blurry shapes but
the other is much stronger. The student wears corrective lenses at
all times, predominantly a spectacle wearer.
She
has a severely handicapped twin brother who is not capable of
attending school and is cared for at home by a specialist carer. Any
schooling that can be done with him is done at home by his personal
carer. Due to complications at birth both children experienced
complications resulting in lower extremity difficulties, making it
very difficult for her to walk and making it not possible for him.
She herself was home schooled until the age of eight after which time
she went to a regular school for the first time in Hawaii. During all
of this time she was accompanied by a full-time helper who was also
her tutor.
Now,
at the age of 15 years old, she finds herself in her freshman year of
high school where she must compete with able-bodied students on a
level par because the school cannot provide any additional support
for her, at this time. She spends most of her day in her wheelchair
because of mobility issues with her legs which needs no further
explanation in terms of her medical record at this time. She can
function with the use of a stroller if required, but not for
prolonged periods of time. This makes safety an issue for her in some
classes where mobility is required (sciences and P.E.)
Due
to both emotional and physical difficulties that she overcame as a
child, and the lack of traditional schooling she has difficulty with
simple arithmetic and some English comprehension. She is Japanese,
born of 2 Japanese parents but has been always educated in English,
from even the earliest age. She is 2 years older than other children
in her class because of her late start and she is below grade average
in most subjects. In this international school context there are
multiple issues that all students encounter, including but not
limited to: second and third culture peers, who are living in a
foreign country (for what can be short periods of time, typically 2-3
years); mixed race or multicultural families; multilingual peers; and
a high turnover of teaching staff at the school, annual changes in
form tutors. Individual spatial awareness, along with both physical
and psychological stresses are factors that could also be considered
in this case as they have an effect on students performance but are
very difficult to measure and compare. It should be pointed out that
this student is not the only low-vision student at the school but she
is the only wheelchair user.
Low Vision and Low Visual Acuity in Students
Vision
is described as “a
dynamic process that integrates sensory and motor information to
derive meaning. A student's ability to use vision for learning is
dependent upon many factors, such as the severity and age of vision
loss, the timeliness and type of intervention, and the presence of
additional disabilities” Now,
as this student has other disabilities it serves to compound her
problems in learning because of the her inability to see well and to
respond to stimulus as quickly as other able-bodied and of clear
unaided visual acuity students. The government of Alberta, Canada
suggests “student
programs and services must be based on the assessed needs of each
student”
which makes perfect sense in any school district or otherwise that
can afford the time and personnel to support such a program. As much
as the school in question tries to support SEN students to the extent
that they are more closely monitored and scrutinized than other
students, where deemed necessary by the school principal, they are
required to complete progress reports by themselves and meet with
teachers to work on agreed “success plans” or “intervention
plans” dependent on their current grades if they are at risk of
failing subjects. This additional strain on students often becomes
another barrier to learning and cause for concern for their ownership
of learning as they are asked to adhere to the plans. It may be
prudent to schedule additional time and personnel to aid in
understanding and collecting of information, of which I shall discuss
later.
Smith,
(1980) suggested that “because most partially sighted students do
not use white canes for travel and because most are able to get
around much like everyone else, people have difficulty believing that
the student needs to use adaptive methods when utilizing printed
materials” (Ibid). also suggesting that “having large print on
the chalk board, or the use of enlarged print on an overhead
projector may assist a partially sighted student. However, the
capacity to read printed materials depends so greatly on conditions
such as degree of contrast, brightness, and colour that it is
preferable that the student and instructor discuss what methods,
techniques, or devices may be used to maximum advantage.” These
“conditions” vary from classroom to classroom and now, the use of
interactive whiteboards (Smart-boards) combined with the need to turn
off/down classroom lights to allow this contrast to be clear enough
for regular learners makes it difficult for SEN students to be
accommodated in many situations. These and similar suggested
strategies can be seen in Appendix 1.
Methodology
Yin
(1994) defines case study as “an empirical inquiry that;
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context”.
In this very unique, qualitative case study, the student was
informally interviewed several times. A selection of teachers (3),
the mother, counsellor, school nurse and high school principal were
interviewed separately, and I, the researcher, as home-room teacher
(form tutor2),
gave the most crucial evidence and created the experimental plan. By
way of counselling and interview, evidence was collected (over a six
week period) from all parties. The nurse and high school principal
are self imposed “support planners” based on the principals own
system of student support. Maternal permission was asked for in a
private meeting, for consideration in the study, after I noticed body
language mannerisms, repetitious instruction requests from the
student and having been in discussion with both parents before, at an
open evening at the school. It was clearly obvious that there were
concerns from the parents about the challenge of high school after a
somewhat easier time in the middle school environment. The student
was also asked if she would allow me to discuss her learning with her
and to develop some possibilities that may help her with her
learning, to which she very cooperatively agreed to. It must be noted
that this student is a very happy child from a very loving, caring
and supportive family.
Unfortunately,
the high school under study does not have any program in place that
can properly or officially supports students with any learning
difficulties, with second language learning issues or physical
disabilities. This paper hopes to shed some light on the school
situation and propose solutions that would be of benefit to this
student, and any future student.
After
the mothers prompt consent was given, I discussed with the student
how we might go about collecting information. The provisional plan
was for us to spend some time together one day and experience “a
day in the life” of this student but the teaching workload and
impossible school schedule meant this idea was to be replaced with
the interview/counselling path made possible by the fact that I teach
both sciences and mathematics to this student allowing me
unrestricted access to information for 2 classes in which she is a
pupil as well as being able to enact immediate changes without any
delays. Teachers' legal rights and responsibilities “Protecting
children from abuse” (Berry 2007)
One
benefit of the school having no official program set up at this time
meant it was simple to execute a reasonable plan with minimal
administrative discussion. Under consultation with the support
planners (Nurse and Principal) and the counsellor I was able to relay
problems and concerns to them that they were unaware of, as well as
being able to liaise with individual teachers on her behalf so as to
allow awareness of her difficulties to be known, while still held in
professional confidence within the faculty of the high school.
The
idea of a questionnaire was dismissed as the evidence that may have
been collected would have been too rigid and inflexible to serve the
purpose of this enquiry (Cohen et al, 2007). Concentrating on only
one student and focusing on interview and counselling, we went about
these private discussions with the assistance of two other teachers,
one of whom was present in the room during each discussion/interview.
When dealing with any individual student, it is appropriate to have
another member of staff present at all times in accordance to “the
Children Act 1989, and is further supported by the Education Act
2002, which obliges schools and colleges of all sorts to have regard
to the promotion of the welfare and safety of all children” Berry
(2007).
Thorne
(1998), Mauthner (2002), Punch (1986).
By
monitoring the student in mathematics and science lessons, liaising
with participants, interviewing and adapting to responses an
appropriate plan was set in place. By providing copies of lesson
materials at the start of the lesson, selective seating near to
Interactive-White-Board (IWB), screens and workstations, access to
information was made simpler. Additional time for working where
possible was also granted, including semester examination. Two
teachers were already managing the situation well, but some were
unaware of the vision issue or had suspicions so explanation was
simple and direct.
Data Analysis in terms of related theory and social interaction.
The
student manages very well to engage with others but “since
vision plays a role in the early development of social behaviours and
of social cognition, lack of visual cues could lead to difficulties
in initiating and maintaining social interactions”
Zebehazy, K.T. & Smith, Thomas. J. (Feb 2011). This was apparent
in a science group-work project in which the student was involved.
There were reports from other pupils in the group of four that the
student involved failed to fulfil her share of work in the project
causing delays in the other students progression and eventual
completion of the work set. In interview with the student she
reported that “things were fine” and that “there were no
problems” that she was aware of. This unfortunately is a clear
indication that social cognition of the problems being encountered by
the group were not being seen by the student as she was missing
visual clues from the group. She explained that the “group is
confused about who is doing what” although instructions were very
clear. She was alone in this confusion.
The
other pupils are fully aware of her mobility problems and they are
now beginning to pick up on the cues that this student has been
sending out to them, in that she cannot always clearly see
instructions as they are given. And that she gives the impression
that she can cope well with other subjects when she may be in fact,
concealing issues from herself and others without even being aware of
it going on. Some element of shame/embarrassment is involved as
students try not to make possibly hurtful comments either directly or
publicly. The students all like each but were concerned about their
individual grades and the possibility of looking foolish at the point
of presentation. In order to maintain good social interaction the
students were advised that although they were working together in
group work that their own individual scores were not dependent on the
team necessarily working together, rather, that they play their own
part strongly within the group. The project required all 4 members to
work collaboratively in producing a proposal to a company based on
the physics involved in a renewable energy type of the groups own
choosing. Classwork involved the use of computers, classroom
materials and internet resources provided. Work set for outside the
classroom over the course of the week-long project was to
collaboratively report all information and graphics collected while
building for their final short presentation on the Friday. The
project was created to allow the groups freedom to decide as a group
which one of four roles that each would play and optimize their final
scores. Together they had ample opportunity to check on the progress
of each other and there was a requirement that they do so each day of
the project and log the progress regardless of the amount.
The
other three members of the group (a Japanese-Canadian, A
Taiwanese-Japanese and a American-Japanese) came to complain that
they felt that it be unfair for someone to score well when they felt
that a majority of the work had been done by them and that minimal
effort had been put in by the other student. The oblivious nature of
the response was a clear indicator that the student herself could not
pick up the signals which were coming from the group and that there
is clearly need for some type of intervention. Individual workloads,
computers to work on and time outside of class were all given to
every student to make the exercise as accessible as possible. As a
qualitative researcher my role required social management skills and
in this small conflict a way to “steer a way through the ethical
issues that may be raised” (Hammersley, 1993). Specifically,
concerns over the students private information and the idea of any
preferential treatment.
The
solution given by the teacher to overcome these difficulties brought
the group together, and taught them the need for a “willingness to
communicate”.
Cultural
differences and previous learning styles add to the confusion within
such an international group but as they are all around 14 years old
we must also consider their inability to cope with stress and emotion
due to their youth. McConnell (1994) explains this well, as “students
have to be rewarded for collaborating”; they “have to see
a real educational purpose for collaborating”.
This
was achieved by them being organised in a way “that
help them collaborate” and
the reconfirmed explanation of individual grades. Kaye and Hawkridge
(2003) describe this type of project as “innovative methods of
delivery” which are “fit for the purpose”.
Motivations
for the learner to achieve are her own ambition to become a
television announcer, parental pressure and peer pressure. As noted
before, she is a very happy child. However, barriers to her learning
also include that same parental pressure as well as her low vision.
Conley (1996).
In
trying to establish the amount of the learning and teaching that has
taken place over such a short period of time as was allowed for this
project to be completed. In such a short window of opportunity for
change it could be inferred that the changes that were “seen”
were conditioned by what this study was looking to show, and require
further investigation. Bulmer (1979). The experiment carried out was
effective in that the student reported needing less help than
previously. She felt more confident in attempting lessons and felt
that she needed to ask fewer questions when trying to establish what
was the each lesson's requirement. These are evidence of success of
presentation of information and improved access. This being said, the
amount of actual improvement in learning would require testing and
comparison to previous results. Nicholls
(1978) wrote
that the “concepts of effort and ability are logically
interdependent” as one might imagine them to be. However, it can be
suggested that causal attributions for success and failure can be
linked to behavioural implications to social and moral development
As
mentioned earlier, student relationships at international school can
be short term, although friendships can be close between students
there are very few life-long friendships. In this situation, the
student has at least one friend who she spends her day with but this
friend is often in different level classes. Different levels of
ability mean that friends and supporters are often apart during the
school day. The nature of high school teaching is such that students
move from classroom to classroom as the daily schedule demands. This
is a strain on students and involves trips to lockers and carrying
often large amounts of materials. Tardiness between lessons is
tolerated in this situation because of the mobility issues with this
student, but no designated assistance is given to her in any
transition.
Student
conditions do not reflect the normal low-vision student because she
is also limited by her physical handicap which restricts her movement
and the ability to adjust position relative to anything outwith3
close proximity, without extraneous effort. This means that movement
around the classroom, if the situation demanded/conditions changed
within the lesson, were more obvious and occasionally disruptive to
other students. The student can see well enough to manage this
unaided but it is another inconvenience, or barrier which cannot be
helped.
In
the first week of the project the student was provided with hand-out
copies of each lesson as they were planned that showed exactly what
was going to appear on the Interactive White Board (IWB) for both
mathematics and sciences classes. This was only possible by the
teachers forward planning to print out the document in black ink, on
A4 size paper, with font size (22) that was exactly the same as that
which would appear in each lesson. This furnishing of the student
with the materials at the beginning of each class allowed the student
to see the materials while the other students were in the first
section of the lesson either at the introduction (normally a
non-linguistic representation) section or while the others were
writing down the lesson title, objectives and learning outcomes, as
is now standard in both the Science and Mathematics classes. This is
a consideration that was under my direct control and was not
supported by the other teachers as it was reported to them by the
principal that this was not necessary (in fact, in consultation with
the support group the student said that she did not want it
highlighted that she had low visual acuity) and that she rather be
treated as an equal to the other students. This was in stark contrast
to the experiment that was going on in the 2 lessons mentioned
previously.
The
student felt that she was coping with her disability well enough in
some classes but she admitted that in both sciences and mathematics
that these were two of her weakest subjects and that she did want to
have the additional support. This very reasonable request was
accepted and is considered as a signal that it may not be necessary
in all situations to provide the same level of support. It intimates
that in subjects that the student feels weaker academically and
inexperienced that the additional support can be seen as more
acceptable as it is perhaps a challenge for all students and could be
considered that it would be less embarrassing to accept. This is a
factor which was not originally anticipated and now poses the
question or questions. Which subjects are the most difficult for a
low VA student? Which subjects are traditionally the most difficult
in high school? Midgley et al (1989)
suggest
that
“Students
who moved from high- to low-efficacy math teachers during the
transition ended the junior high year with the lowest expectancies
and perceived performance (even lower than students who had low
efficacy teachers both years) and the highest perceptions of task
difficulty”.
During
the observation period of the student and in discussions with other
teachers they suggested that the student had no apparent issues in
their class as the student could produce some good quality work. The
English teacher noted “she is fine in my class, but of course, I
tweak her grade. Otherwise, she would fail every piece of work set.”
This confirms the need for an intervention and official adjustment of
the assessment policy in the school and is obviously a contradiction
in terms. How could she be fine, but still need an amendment of her
grade?
This matches the description by Smith, (1980) but also means that the teacher is forced to change his way of scoring in contradiction to the school assessment policy.
This matches the description by Smith, (1980) but also means that the teacher is forced to change his way of scoring in contradiction to the school assessment policy.
Effective
teaching and learning needs to occur and Bishop and Denley (1997)
state that “Learning is an active process involving at least one
human being-and human beings, particularly young ones, are at times
unpredictable, influenced by feelings and above all, different from
one another.” Onus is on the student to make every effort to learn,
which in this case, she does. It must also be noted that ensuring
that these practices are adopted by teaching staff will not guarantee
effective learning will occur, but should be adopted as good
practice. By providing the support suitable for each student we can
hope to create the opportunity of accelerated learning. Smith (2000)
suggests that the “accelerated learning classroom is one where
success and the possibility of success is affirmed at all levels”
The
importance of freshman (grade 9) and sophomore (Grade 10) years is
highlighted in the importance of grade-point average system in the
international academic world as a majority of students go on to study
in the United States of America as most schools use this system when
considering applications for tertiary education (colleges and
universities) Imber (2002), Gilman & Swan (1989) explain that
there is no standardized system of grading in the United States
itself, and as such, entrance issues are up to the individual
institutions and the regulatory authority of each individual state.
The GPA is commonly stripped down to core academic performance across
five areas; Math, English or Language Arts, Social Studies, Science
and finally Foreign Language. This allows students to attempt more
subjects than the five core areas and can of course be a
consideration for admission to college. Alternatively students can
concentrate on only core subjects to improve their chances of a
better average.
Students
studying in an “International Baccalaureate” school such as this,
are standardized worldwide in that they conform to the same standards
and are required to study subjects from 6 areas4,
including an Extended Essay in one topic (EE), a Theory of Knowledge
essay (TOK) and a portfolio of Creativity, Action and Service (CAS).
The latter sections are compulsory for all students and are at the
core of the diploma programme in that they teach students how to
think about their role in the world, “requiring critical thinking
skills and a sense of international-mindedness”5.
This could be working with the disabled, homeless or other external
group.
Lightbown
and Spada (2001) “Critical Period Hypothesis” suggests that
“there is a time in human development when the brain is predisposed
for success in language learning”. In considering the subject as a
late starter to school and not being a native English speaker it is
reasonable to suggest that age of acquisition for her differ from her
classroom peers, although their ages are not too dissimilar.
Conclusion
It
is clear to see from the study of this student that there is a real
need for additional support from individual teachers in their classes
and from the school administration to increase the accessibility of
information to individual students and to raise awareness of the
prevalence of visual impairments and simple steps that can be taken
to reduce the barriers to learning.
There
ways forward for this student are many and varied and should be
supported by the school and the staff. There is a requirement of the
school administration to fully explore all of these possibilities so
as to support their students and to educate themselves in the signals
and mannerisms that students with these kinds of problems in order to
provide an even platform on which students can compete and be quality
assured of the courses in which they are enrolled and the parents pay
for. This will increase the authenticity of the school and their
students’ efforts and eventual grades.
Lightbown
and Spada (2001) explain the importance of “In a classroom, a
sensitive teacher, who takes learners' individual personalities and
learning styles into account, can create a learning environment in
which virtually all learners can be successful in learning a second
language”. Whether in their first or second language, students can
study knowing that all efforts are being made to provide the best
learning environment possible. Each course should be quality assured
as being fully accessible and level appropriate as described by
Chambers
(1995), Azuma (1991).
It
is very possible to provide support to students with low vision and
other disabilities without too much need for specialise equipment or
training. Simple changes to classroom management, forward planning of
lesson (and classroom) materials, and open discussion between
students and teachers can provide a better learning condition and
boost confidence for success. The main focus in any school must be
the welfare and education of the students. Teachers should
continually be willing to adjust their practice to accommodate
students’ needs, and administrators, should promote professional
development opportunities for teachers and manage scheduled time to
facilitate this need.
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Case Studies EDE314GRA123-2-1
(accessed November 17th,
2011)
Zebehazy,
K.T. & Smith, T. J. (Feb 2011) An
Examination of Characteristics Related to the Social Skills of Youths
with Visual Impairments
AFB Journal Of Visual Impairment & Blindness, v105 n2 p84-95 Feb
2011
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?ERICExtSearch_Descriptor=%22Visually+Impaired+Mobility%22&ERICExtSearch_Facet_0=facet_de&ERICExtSearch_FacetValue_0=%22Visual+Impairments%22&ERICExtSearch_FacetValue_1=36&ERICExtSearch_Facet_1=facet_pds&ERICExtSearch_FacetValue_2=%22Secondary+Education%22&ERICExtSearch_Facet_2=facet_edlevel&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b80458c5b&accno=EJ914290&_nfls=false
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Jan 2nd
2012)
Medical/Disability
Information for Classroom Teachers “Visual
Impairment – Strategies that make a difference”
Government of Alberta, Canada.
http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/inmdict/html/visual_impairment.html
(accessed December 21st,
2011)
APPENDIX 1
|
By
Elsie Rao, VI Teacher, Tyler Independent School District
For
educational purposes, the low vision student is typically one who
reads print and has a corrected visual acuity of 20/70 or worse in
the better eye. Most low vision students have very poor distance
vision, so this makes it difficult for them to see the chalkboard
or to gather detailed information from filmstrips, charts, or
overhead screens. These students can usually read print and gain
information from pictures, charts, and graphs when the material is
up close. Each low vision student's needs are unique, but the
following suggestions may be helpful when working with a low
vision student in the classroom.
Some General Facts Regarding Students with Low Vision:
Suggestions for the Classroom Teacher:
Understanding A Low Vision Student:
|
http://www.tsbvi.edu/program-and-administrative-resources/3277-considerations-for-low-vision-students-in-a-classroom
(accessed November 27th,
2011)
1According
to doctors at Wills Eye Hospital, Philadelphia, the most common
divergent strabismus in childhood Divergent strabismus -
http://www.surgeryencyclopedia.com/Ce-Fi/Eye-Muscle-Surgery.html#b
(accessed
November 22nd,
2011)
2Home-room
teacher is the international school term used for “Form Tutor”
as it is known in England.
3Outwith
– preposition, Scottish, outside; beyond
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/outwith
(accessed Nov 20th, 2011)
4Group
1 – Language Art. Group 2 – Second Language. Group 3 -
Individuals and Societies. Group 4 - Experimental Sciences. Group 5
– Mathematics or Computer Science
5http://www.ibo.org/diploma/
accessed January 2nd
2012
